The NreABC system of Staphylococcus carnosus combines nitrate and oxygen sensing by an NreA,NreB sensor complex

Staphylococcus carnosus is a facultative anaerobic bacterium which features the cytoplasmic NreABC system. It is necessary for regulation of nitrate respiration and the nitrate reductase gene narG in response to oxygen and nitrate availability. NreB is a sensor kinase of a two-component system and represents the oxygen sensor of the system. It binds an oxygen labile [4Fe-4S]2+ cluster under anaerobic conditions. NreB autophosphorylates and phosphoryl transfer activates the response regulator NreC which induces narG expression. The third component of the Nre system is the nitrate receptor NreA. In this study the role of the nitrate receptor protein NreA in nitrate regulation and its functional and physiological effect on oxygen regulation and interaction with the NreBC two-component system were detected. In vivo, a reporter gene assay for measuring expression of the NreABC regulated nitrate reductase gene narG was used for quantitative evaluation of NreA function. Maximal narG expression in wild type S. carnosus required anaerobic conditions and the presence of nitrate. Deletion of nreA allowed expression of narG under aerobic conditions, and under anaerobic conditions nitrate was no longer required for maximal induction. This indicates that NreA is a nitrate regulated inhibitor of narG expression. Purified NreA and variant NreA(Y95A) inhibited the autophosphorylation of anaerobic NreB in part and completely, respectively. Neither NreA nor NreA(Y95A) stimulated dephosphorylation of NreB-phosphate, however. Inhibition of phosphorylation was relieved completely when NreA with bound nitrate (NreA•[NO3-]) was used. The same effects of NreA were monitored with aerobically isolated Fe-S-less NreB, which indicates that NreA does not have an influence on the iron-sulfur cluster of NreB. In summary, the data of this study show that NreA interacts with the oxygen sensor NreB and controls its phosphorylation level in a nitrate dependent manner. This modulation of NreB-function by NreA and nitrate results in nitrate/oxygen co-sensing by an NreA/NreB sensory unit. It transmits the regulatory signal from oxygen and nitrate in a joint signal to target promoters. Therefore, nitrate and oxygen regulation of nitrate dissimilation follows a new mode of regulation not present in other facultative anaerobic bacteria.

Aktivierung des Sauerstoffsensors FNR von Escherichia coli durch Glutathion in vivo und in vitro

Der Sauerstoffsensor FNR (Fumarat-Nitratreduktase-Regulator) von Escherichia coli spielt eine wichtige Rolle beim Umschalten vom aeroben zum anaeroben Stoffwechsel. FNR ist ein Transkriptionsregulator, der im aktiven Zustand ein [4Fe4S]-Zentrum besitzt. Bei Kontakt mit Sauerstoff zerfällt das [4Fe4S]- zu einem [2Fe2S]-Zentrum und führt zum Verlust der Aktivität von FNR. Die Reaktionen, die zum Aufbau des [4Fe4S]-Zentrums und der reduktiven Aktivierung von aerob und anaerob isoliertem apoFNR führen, wurden in vivo und in vitro untersucht. Die Einfluß in vivo von Glutathion auf die Funktion von FNR und die Rolle von Glutathion beim Aufbau des [4Fe4S]-Zentrums in gereinigtem apoFNR zeigen die wichtige Bedeutung von Glutathion bei der de novo Assemblierung von [4Fe4S]FNR und bei der reduktiven Aktivierung von sauerstoff-inaktiviertem FNR. Die energetischen Parameter von E. coli und ihre Änderungen beim Übergang vom aeroben zum anaeroben Stoffwechsel wurden untersucht. Das elektrochemische Protonenpotential delta-p über der Cytoplasmamembran wurde im Gleichgewichtszustand in der aeroben Atmung und anaeroben Nitrat-, Fumarat- und Dimethylsulfoxid-Atmung bestimmt. Delta-p betrug in der aeroben Atmung -160 mV, in der anaeroben Atmung sank delta-p entgegen früheren Vermutungen lediglich um 20 mV. Die geringen Änderungen von delta-p können deshalb vermutlich nicht als regulatorisches Signal für das Umschalten vom aeroben zum anaeroben Stoffwechsel genutzt werden.

Charakterisierung von apoFNR, einer weiteren Form des Sauerstoffsensors FNR aus Escherichia coli und von NreB, einem potentiellen Sauerstoffsensor aus Staphylococcus carnosus

FNR (Fumarat Nitratreduktase Regulator) ist der Sauerstoffsensor aus Escherichia coli. Bisher waren zwei Formen von FNR bekannt, der aktive Zustand, ein Dimer mit je einem [4Fe4S]-Zentrum und ein inaktiver Zustand, in dem FNR als Monomer mit je einem [2Fe2S]-Zentrum vorliegt. Die Untersuchungen dieser Arbeit geben nun Hinweise, dass es mit apoFNR eine dritte physiologische Form von FNR gibt. Es wurde die Entstehung von apoFNR aus [4Fe4S]•FNR untersucht und die biochemischen Eigenschaften von apoFNR charakterisiert. ApoFNR konnte in vitro zu [4Fe4S]•FNR rekonstituiert werden, hierbei konnte die Lagphase der Rekonstitution durch Zusatz von Glutaredoxinen zum Rekonstitutionsansatz verkürzt werden. FNR, dessen Cysteinreste in vivo unter aeroben bzw. anaeroben Bedingungen mit 4-Acetamido-4´-Maleimidylstilbene-2,2´Disulfonsäure markiert wurden, zeigt auf SDS-Gelen einen Shift zu einer höheren Masse im Vergleich zu unmarkiertem FNR. Allerdings trat in aeroben Zellen eine zusätzliche Bande bei einer niedrigeren Masse auf. Es waren hier also weniger Cysteinreste markierbar. Weiterhin wurde mit NreB ein potentieller Sauerstoffsensor aus Staphylococcus carnosus untersucht. Es wurden Hinweise auf ein Eisen-Schwefel-Zentrum vom FNR-Typ als Cofaktor gefunden. Der Einbau dieses Cofaktors war abhängig von der Anwesenheit der Cysteinreste in NreB, von der Cysteindesulfurase NifSAV und von Eisenionen. Der Cofaktor war sauerstoffempfindlich und beeinflusste die Autophosphorylierung von NreB.

Exchange of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) between plants and the atmosphere under laboratory and field conditions

Nitrogen is an essential nutrient. It is for human, animal and plants a constituent element of proteins and nucleic acids. Although the majority of the Earth’s atmosphere consists of elemental nitrogen (N2, 78 %) only a few microorganisms can use it directly. To be useful for higher plants and animals elemental nitrogen must be converted to a reactive oxidized form. This conversion happens within the nitrogen cycle by free-living microorganisms, symbiotic living Rhizobium bacteria or by lightning. Humans are able to synthesize reactive nitrogen through the Haber-Bosch process since the beginning of the 20th century. As a result food security of the world population could be improved noticeably. On the other side the increased nitrogen input results in acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems and in loss of biodiversity. Negative health effects arose for humans such as fine particulate matter and summer smog. Furthermore, reactive nitrogen plays a decisive role at atmospheric chemistry and global cycles of pollutants and nutritive substances.rnNitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) belong to the reactive trace gases and are grouped under the generic term NOx. They are important components of atmospheric oxidative processes and influence the lifetime of various less reactive greenhouse gases. NO and NO2 are generated amongst others at combustion process by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen as well as by biological processes within soil. In atmosphere NO is converted very quickly into NO2. NO2 is than oxidized to nitrate (NO3-) and to nitric acid (HNO3), which bounds to aerosol particles. The bounded nitrate is finally washed out from atmosphere by dry and wet deposition. Catalytic reactions of NOx are an important part of atmospheric chemistry forming or decomposing tropospheric ozone (O3). In atmosphere NO, NO2 and O3 are in photosta¬tionary equilibrium, therefore it is referred as NO-NO2-O3 triad. At regions with elevated NO concentrations reactions with air pollutions can form NO2, altering equilibrium of ozone formation.rnThe essential nutrient nitrogen is taken up by plants mainly by dissolved NO3- entering the roots. Atmospheric nitrogen is oxidized to NO3- within soil via bacteria by nitrogen fixation or ammonium formation and nitrification. Additionally atmospheric NO2 uptake occurs directly by stomata. Inside the apoplast NO2 is disproportionated to nitrate and nitrite (NO2-), which can enter the plant metabolic processes. The enzymes nitrate and nitrite reductase convert nitrate and nitrite to ammonium (NH4+). NO2 gas exchange is controlled by pressure gradients inside the leaves, the stomatal aperture and leaf resistances. Plant stomatal regulation is affected by climate factors like light intensity, temperature and water vapor pressure deficit. rnThis thesis wants to contribute to the comprehension of the effects of vegetation in the atmospheric NO2 cycle and to discuss the NO2 compensation point concentration (mcomp,NO2). Therefore, NO2 exchange between the atmosphere and spruce (Picea abies) on leaf level was detected by a dynamic plant chamber system under labo¬ratory and field conditions. Measurements took place during the EGER project (June-July 2008). Additionally NO2 data collected during the ECHO project (July 2003) on oak (Quercus robur) were analyzed. The used measuring system allowed simultaneously determina¬tion of NO, NO2, O3, CO2 and H2O exchange rates. Calculations of NO, NO2 and O3 fluxes based on generally small differences (∆mi) measured between inlet and outlet of the chamber. Consequently a high accuracy and specificity of the analyzer is necessary. To achieve these requirements a highly specific NO/NO2 analyzer was used and the whole measurement system was optimized to an enduring measurement precision.rnData analysis resulted in a significant mcomp,NO2 only if statistical significance of ∆mi was detected. Consequently, significance of ∆mi was used as a data quality criterion. Photo-chemical reactions of the NO-NO2-O3 triad in the dynamic plant chamber’s volume must be considered for the determination of NO, NO2, O3 exchange rates, other¬wise deposition velocity (vdep,NO2) and mcomp,NO2 will be overestimated. No significant mcomp,NO2 for spruce could be determined under laboratory conditions, but under field conditions mcomp,NO2 could be identified between 0.17 and 0.65 ppb and vdep,NO2 between 0.07 and 0.42 mm s-1. Analyzing field data of oak, no NO2 compensation point concentration could be determined, vdep,NO2 ranged between 0.6 and 2.71 mm s-1. There is increasing indication that forests are mainly a sink for NO2 and potential NO2 emissions are low. Only when assuming high NO soil emissions, more NO2 can be formed by reaction with O3 than plants are able to take up. Under these circumstance forests can be a source for NO2.

The role of DNA damage in the pathogenesis of nitrate tolerance - nitrosative versus oxidative DNA damage

6. Summary Despite the lack of direct evidence from large clinical trials for mutagenic and genotoxic effects of GTN therapy, the present study show s the induction of pre-mutagenic lesions, such as 8- oxo - G and O 6 - me - G by GTN t reatment as well as increased formation of DNA strand breaks. These results were obtained in an in vitro (EA.hy 926 – human endothelial cell line) and in vivo (Wistar rats and C57BL/6 mice) setting. However, GTN - induced DNA damage had no effect on the degr ee of nitrate tolerance but only on other pathological side effects such as oxidative stress, as confirmed by studies in MGMT knockout mice. Of clinical importance , this study establishes potent apoptotic properties of organic nitrates, which has been demo nstrated by the levels of the novel apoptotic marker and caspase - 3 substrate, fractin, as well as levels of cleaved caspase - 3 , the activated form of this pro - apoptotic enzyme . The p rotein analy tical data ha ve been confirmed by an independent assay for the apoptosis , Cell death detection assay (TUNEL) . First, these GTN - mediated apoptotic effects may account for the previously reported anti - cancer effects of GTN therapy (probably based on induction of apoptosis in tumor cells). Second, these GTN - mediated apop totic effects may account for the increased mortality rates observed in the group of organic nitrate - treated patients as reported by two independent meta - analysis (probably due to induction of apoptosis in highly beneficial endothelial progenitor cells as well as in cardiomyocytes during wound healing and cardiac remodeling) . Summary of the current investigations can be seen in Figure 18.